Welcome to the Archaeology University Taster Course! This course will run you through what archaeology is, why it's important, and a number of the methods, techniques, and specialisms present within it. This course delves into some of the scientific methods archaeologists deploy, including the ways we can figure out how old a site or artefact is, how we can investigate diet and mobility in the past, and the role of DNA analysis in archaeology. After running through the foundations and components of archaeology, the course also presents some of the history and study of Neanderthals to demonstrate how our methods come together to interpret the past.
Course Content
- Absolute Chronology -
A timeline that assigns specific calendar dates to archaeological events or materials, often established through scientific dating methods like dendrochronology or radiocarbon dating.
- Admixture -
The interbreeding between two or more different populations or species, such as between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.
- aDNA -
Short for ancient DNA, it refers to DNA extracted from archaeological or historical specimens, providing genetic information about past populations, kinship, and migration.
- Adornments -
Objects used to decorate or embellish, often holding symbolic or aesthetic value, including feathers or beads used by past peoples.
- Anatomical Position -
The standard position in which the body is laid out for analysis—standing, facing forward, arms at the side, and palms facing forward.
- Ancient DNA -
Genetic material extracted from archaeological or historical remains, used to study the genetics of past populations and species.
- Anthropobotany -
The study of plant remains from archaeological contexts to understand human-plant relationships, agriculture, and diet in past societies.
- Anthropogenic -
Resulting from human activity, often used to describe environmental or isotopic changes influenced by humans.
- Anthropology -
The study of humans, their societies, and cultures, often closely linked with archaeology in university degree programs.
- Antiquarians -
Wealthy individuals in the 19th and early 20th centuries who excavated historical sites, often prioritising personal collections and prestige over scientific accuracy or preservation.
- Archaeobotanist -
A specialist who studies ancient plant remains (like seeds, grains, or wood) found in archaeological sites to reconstruct past environments and agricultural practices.
- Archaeology -
The study of the human past through material remains such as artefacts, buildings, and landscapes.
- Artefact -
Any object made, modified, or used by humans that is studied by archaeologists to understand past cultures.
- Australopithecines -
An extinct group of early hominins from Africa, known for being among the first to use tools and walk upright.
- Bifacial -
Describes a tool that has been flaked on both sides to form a sharp edge, common in Lower Palaeolithic industries.
- Bioapatite -
A group of phosphate minerals found in biological systems; hydroxyapatite is the most common form in human hard tissue.
- Biplot -
A graph showing two variables (e.g., δ13C on the x-axis and δ15N on the y-axis) used to compare isotope data between samples.
- Bulk Sample -
A type of soil sample collected during excavation, typically around 20 cubic cm, used for later laboratory analysis to recover ecofacts and micro-remains.
- Cave Art -
Prehistoric paintings or engravings found on cave walls, now attributed to both Homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
- Cementum -
A calcified tissue covering the root of teeth, part of hard tissue in humans and animals.
- Collagen -
A structural protein in bone and other connective tissues that can retain dietary and environmental isotopes.
- Commercial Archaeology -
Archaeological work conducted by professional companies, often as part of the planning process before construction to preserve heritage.
- Commingled Assemblage -
A collection of skeletal remains that are mixed together, often complicating individual identification.
- Conservation -
The professional care, preservation, and restoration of archaeological materials and sites, often requiring scientific expertise.
- Conservator -
A specialist responsible for the scientific care, preservation, and restoration of archaeological artefacts.
- Contamination -
Introduction of modern DNA into ancient samples, which can interfere with genetic analysis and lead to inaccurate conclusions.
- Context -
A discrete unit of archaeological evidence, such as a layer of soil, a structure, or a feature, that can be recorded and interpreted.
- Core Sample -
A cylindrical section of soil or sediment extracted for analysis of stratigraphy, pollen, or environmental data.
- Craniosynostosis -
A congenital condition where the sutures in a baby's skull close prematurely, potentially affecting brain development and skull shape.
- Cranium -
The skull, especially the part enclosing the brain, often used in sex estimation in osteoarchaeology.
- Cultural Relativism -
The principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms without imposing external judgments.
- Curator -
A museum professional responsible for managing, interpreting, and displaying collections, including archaeological materials.
- Deamination -
A chemical change in DNA where a cytosine base is converted into uracil, often due to hydrolysis, leading to sequencing errors.
- Dendrochronology -
A dating method that analyses the growth rings of trees to determine exact calendar years, often used for wooden artefacts or structures.
- Denisovans -
An extinct group of archaic humans closely related to Neanderthals, known mostly through DNA and a few fossil remains in Asia.
- Dentine -
The dense, bony tissue forming the bulk of a tooth beneath the enamel, used in isotope and DNA studies.
- Desk Based Assessment (DBA) -
The initial research phase of an excavation, involving the study of existing records, reports, maps, and databases to assess the archaeological potential of a site.
- Diagenesis -
The physical and chemical changes that occur in bone or teeth after burial, often altering isotope values.
- DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) -
The molecule carrying genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms.
- Dose Rate (Luminescence Dating) -
The amount of ionising radiation an object or sediment is exposed to annually, necessary for calculating the time since its last exposure to light or heat.
- Earthworks -
Human-made modifications to the landscape, such as ditches, banks, and mounds, often significant in archaeological studies.
- Ecofact -
Natural material (such as pollen, seeds, or animal bones) found at archaeological sites that provides insight into human activity and environmental conditions.
- Electron Trap -
In luminescence dating, a location in a mineral’s crystal lattice where electrons accumulate over time due to radiation exposure.
- Enamel -
The hardest tissue in the body, forming the outer layer of teeth, resistant to diagenetic change and ideal for isotope and DNA analysis.
- End Members -
Reference sources with known lead isotope signatures used in comparison to archaeological samples in geographic analysis.
- Erosion -
The process by which rocks and soil are worn away, which contributes to the geological incorporation of isotopes like strontium and lead.
- Error Range -
The range of uncertainty in a dating result, typically expressed as a number of years before or after the estimated date.
- Ethnography -
A qualitative research method used in anthropology involving direct observation and interviews to understand social practices and beliefs.
- Excavation -
The systematic process of uncovering archaeological remains through digging and recording.
- Feature -
A non-portable element of an archaeological site, such as a wall, ditch, or hearth.
- Femur/Femora -
The thigh bone; the longest and strongest bone in the human body, often used in MNI calculations.
- Fibula -
A slender bone in the lower leg, often challenging to identify in fragmentary osteoarchaeological contexts.
- Flotation -
A technique used in post-excavation analysis where soil is soaked and stirred to extract lightweight materials like seeds or charcoal that float to the surface.
- Food Web -
A complex network of feeding relationships between organisms, used in isotope studies to trace dietary inputs.
- Fractionation -
The process that causes isotopes of the same element to behave differently in natural processes due to differences in mass.
- Fragmentation -
The breaking apart of DNA strands into smaller pieces over time, complicating sequencing in ancient samples.
- Geophysical Survey -
A suite of non-invasive techniques used to detect archaeological features below the ground, including magnetometry, resistivity, and ground penetrating radar.
- GIS (Geographic Information System) -
A system used to capture, store, manipulate, and visualise spatial data, often employed in mapping archaeological sites.
- Glacial Maximum -
The period of maximum glacial expansion during an ice age, when ice sheets reached their greatest extent.
- Glacial Steppe -
A cold, treeless landscape dominated by grasses and shrubs, common during glacial periods in Pleistocene Eurasia.
- GPS (Global Positioning System) -
A satellite-based system used to determine the precise location of archaeological features and trenches on a site.
- Gracile -
Describes a slender body build, often used in contrast with robust to describe anatomical features of different hominin species.
- Grey Literature -
Unpublished archaeological reports produced by commercial units, often containing valuable information about past excavations and findings.
- Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) -
A geophysical method that uses radar pulses to detect subsurface features, particularly effective in mapping buried structures.
- Half-Life -
The time it takes for half the atoms of a radioactive substance to decay; for carbon-14, this is approximately 5,700 years.
- Haplogroup -
A genetic population group of people who share a common ancestor on the matrilineal (mtDNA) or patrilineal (Y-DNA) line, identified by SNPs.
- Hard Tissue -
The mineralised tissues in the body, such as bone, enamel, cementum, and dentine, which survive in the archaeological record.
- Harris Matrix -
A diagram used in archaeology to record the stratigraphic relationships between contexts, showing which layers are older or younger.
- HER (Historic Environment Record) -
A digital or physical database maintained by local authorities in the UK, containing information on known archaeological sites and finds in a region.
- Hominids -
A family of primates that includes modern humans, our ancestors, and other extinct relatives like Neanderthals and Australopithecines.
- Homo Erectus -
An extinct species of early human that was one of the first to leave Africa and use more advanced tools.
- Homo Heidelbergensis -
A transitional species between Homo erectus and later hominins such as Neanderthals, often considered a common ancestor.
- Homo Neanderthalensis -
The scientific name for Neanderthals, a close extinct relative of modern humans who lived across Eurasia.
- Homo Sapiens -
The species name for modern humans.
- In Situ -
Refers to finds or features that are found in their original place of deposition, undisturbed since they were left there.
- Interdisciplinary -
Involving two or more academic disciplines or areas of knowledge.
- Interpersonal Care -
Acts of aid and support given to members within a social group, such as caring for injured or disabled individuals.
- Interstadial -
A warmer period within a broader glacial epoch, marked by temporary retreat of glaciers and improved climate conditions.
- Ionised -
When an atom or molecule gains or loses electrons, acquiring a charge.
- Ionising Radiation -
Radiation with enough energy to remove electrons from atoms; responsible for the trapped charge in materials dated using luminescence.
- Isotope -
Variants of a chemical element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons; some are stable, others (like carbon-14) are radioactive.
- Latitude -
Geographic coordinate specifying north–south position, affecting isotope ratios due to climate patterns.
- Listed Building -
A structure officially designated as being of special historical or architectural interest and protected by law.
- Lower Palaeolithic -
The earliest and longest phase of the Stone Age, beginning with the first use of tools around 3.3 million years ago.
- Luminescence Dating -
A technique that measures the amount of trapped electrons in minerals like quartz or feldspar to determine when they were last exposed to light or heat.
- Magnetometry -
A geophysical technique that measures magnetic variations in soil to identify buried archaeological features, such as ditches and walls.
- Mass Spectrometry -
A technique used to measure the relative abundance of different isotopes in a sample.
- Material Culture -
The physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture.
- Matrilineal -
Related to the mother’s lineage; traits passed down via mitochondrial DNA.
- Middle Palaeolithic -
A phase of the Stone Age characterized by the rise and dominance of Neanderthals in Eurasia, dating from ~300,000 to 40,000 years ago.
- Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) -
A method in archaeology to estimate the lowest possible number of individuals represented in a skeletal assemblage.
- Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) -
Genetic material found in mitochondria, inherited maternally, often used in kinship and lineage studies.
- Morphological -
Pertaining to the form and structure of organisms, used in assessing traits like sex or species.
- Morphological Dating -
A method that uses the physical characteristics of artefacts (shape, structure, design) to estimate their age.
- Multidisciplinary -
Drawing knowledge and methods from multiple academic disciplines.
- Neanderthalisation -
The evolutionary process through which early hominins in Europe developed into fully formed Neanderthals.
- Neanderthals -
An extinct human species adapted to cold environments, known for their robust build, tool use, symbolic behaviour, and interbreeding with Homo sapiens.
- Non-Metric Traits -
Subtle skeletal features not easily measured, used in anthropological and osteological analysis.
- Nucleotide -
The basic building block of DNA and RNA, consisting of a sugar, phosphate, and base (A, T, G, or C).
- Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) -
A luminescence dating technique where light is used to release trapped electrons from quartz or feldspar, allowing calculation of the last time the sample was exposed to sunlight.
- Osteology -
The scientific study of bones, particularly human remains, used to learn about age, health, trauma, and lifestyle in past populations.
- Osteoprofile -
A comprehensive profile created from a skeleton including biological sex, age-at-death, stature, pathologies, and other skeletal traits.
- Palaeoclimate -
The climate conditions of the geological past, often reconstructed through proxies such as tree rings or ice cores; used to help calibrate radiocarbon dates.
- Palynologist -
A scientist who analyses pollen grains from archaeological soil samples to reconstruct ancient environments and vegetation.
- Palynology -
The study of pollen and spores, often used in archaeology to reconstruct past environments and human interactions with them.
- Pathology -
Signs of disease or injury in skeletal remains, often recorded during osteoprofiling.
- Pattern Recognition -
The ability to identify recurring shapes, themes, or structures; valuable in archaeological interpretation and analysis.
- Pelvis -
The bony structure at the base of the spine, the most reliable part of the body for sex estimation.
- Per Mille (‰) -
A unit expressing isotope ratios as parts per thousand.
- Pleistocene -
The geological epoch from about 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago, characterised by repeated glacial cycles and the presence of early humans.
- Polymorphism -
The occurrence of different forms among members of a population; in genetics, refers to different DNA sequences at the same location.
- Post-Excavation Analysis (Post-Ex) -
The stage after fieldwork where finds and samples are cleaned, analysed, and interpreted to build a fuller understanding of the site.
- Prehistoric -
Refers to the time before written records, including the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic periods.
- Prehistory -
The period of human history before written records, primarily studied through archaeology.
- Pseudoscience -
Claims or beliefs that are presented as scientific but lack empirical support or peer review; often present in archaeology-related conspiracy theories.
- Radiocarbon Dating -
A scientific method that uses the decay of carbon-14 in organic material to determine its age, up to around 50,000 years old.
- Reference Chronology -
A timeline of established dates used as a comparison for dating materials, often created using dendrochronology or other absolute dating methods.
- Reference Collection -
A curated group of known specimens used to help identify archaeological finds.
- Refugia -
Regions that served as safe havens for humans and animals during periods of extreme climate, such as glacial maxima.
- Relative Chronology -
A timeline based on the order of events or materials rather than specific calendar years, often established through stratigraphy.
- Resistivity -
A geophysical technique that measures how strongly soil resists electrical current to detect buried features like walls or ditches.
- Robust -
Describes a strong, heavily built anatomical structure, often used to describe Neanderthal bodies adapted to cold climates.
- Robusticity -
The strength and density of skeletal tissue, influencing its ability to survive burial.
- Secondary Deposition -
Archaeological finds that have been moved from their original place of deposition, either deliberately or accidentally.
- Section Drawing -
A scale drawing of a vertical face of an excavated feature, used to document and interpret stratigraphy.
- Sex Estimation -
The process of determining the probable biological sex of skeletal remains based on morphological traits.
- Sherd -
A broken piece or fragment of pottery, often found during archaeological excavations.
- Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) -
A variation in a single nucleotide that occurs at a specific position in the genome, useful in identifying haplogroups.
- Soft Tissue -
Non-mineralised body tissues such as muscles, organs, and nerves, which usually decompose and are not preserved archaeologically.
- Stable Isotope -
An isotope that does not undergo radioactive decay, such as carbon-12 and carbon-13.
- Stadial -
A cold phase within a glacial period, marked by the advance of ice sheets and harsher environmental conditions.
- Stratigraphic Dating -
A relative dating method based on the principle that lower layers in a stratigraphic sequence are older than those above them.
- Stratigraphy -
A method of interpreting archaeological layers to understand the chronological sequence of human activity.
- Stratigraphy -
The analysis of soil layers (strata) at archaeological sites to understand the chronological sequence of human activity.
- Taphonomy -
The study of what happens to organisms after death, including decomposition, preservation, and fossilisation processes.
- Test Pit -
A small, controlled excavation unit used to assess the archaeological potential of a site without fully excavating it.
- Textual Sources -
Written documents and records used by historians and archaeologists to understand the past.
- Thermoluminescence -
A form of luminescence dating where heat is used to release trapped electrons, often applied to ceramics or burned stone.
- Trapped Charge -
Electrons stored in defects within a mineral’s crystal lattice due to ionising radiation; the basis for luminescence dating.
- Trial Excavation -
A small-scale excavation targeting specific areas of a site to determine the presence and significance of archaeological features.
- Trophic Level -
The position an organism occupies in a food chain, influencing nitrogen isotope ratios.
- Typological Dating -
A method that groups artefacts into types based on shared features and assigns dates based on known historical styles or production trends.
- Typological Dating -
A method of dating artifacts or features by comparing their styles and forms to those of known age.
- Typology -
A classification system for artefacts based on shared characteristics such as shape, decoration, or manufacturing method, used to assist in dating and interpretation.
- Uracil -
A nucleotide base not normally found in DNA (present in RNA), often resulting from the deamination of cytosine in ancient DNA.
- Watching Brief -
A process where an archaeologist monitors machine excavation on a site, ready to intervene if significant archaeology is encountered.
- Weatherproof -
Describes someone able to work effectively in various weather conditions—an important trait for archaeologists working in the field.
- Xenoarchaeology -
A fictional branch of archaeology focusing on the study of alien or non-human civilisations, often featured in science fiction media.
- Y Chromosome -
The sex chromosome passed down the paternal line, used in identifying patrilineal ancestry.
- Zooarchaeologist -
A specialist who studies animal remains from archaeological sites to understand diet, domestication, and human-animal relationships in the past.
- Zooarchaeology -
The study of animal remains from archaeological sites to understand past human-animal interactions, diet, and environment.
Subject Lead
Cyrus Edgcombe
University Taster
Archaeology